The Absolute Zenith Complex Psychiatric Condition: A Psychoanalytic Study of the Personality of Dictators

Desmond Ayim-Aboagye

Regent University College of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Psychology, Ghana

*Correspondence to: Dr. Desmond Ayim-Aboagye, Regent University College of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Psychology, Ghana.

Copyright © 2021 Dr. Desmond Ayim-Aboagye. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Introduction

Visualizing Background Data
World history furnishes scholars, academics, philosophers, and medical practitioners with considerable information concerning how leadership in diverse societies was constituted in the Ancients times, as well as Modern times [1]. The chief advisors of many of these leaders did their best to counsel the prime leaders, especially concerning how they should dispense their powers. These men always surrounded a leader of the people. However, in some societies, the power of the leader was channeled to the people through the belief in a supernatural figure, who became a source of power and support. This practice was also common in the Ancient world. Some advisors usually professed to have some contact with these powers through dreams and then communicated to the prime leader either through a chosen prophet or himself. This practice was seen with certain nations that inhabited the Middle East and other parts of the Ancients world. Later, some other people in the world had copied these Ancients and had allowed their leaders to depend on these same powers that were thought to live outside the planet earth but have an abundance of influence on earthly inhabitants. But other nations happened to be ruled by individual leaders that professed to be the powers or the channel of the supernatural powers themselves and, so had to be their mouthpiece who could receive messages from their sources of powers. These leaders never saw the vital need to depend on human advisors or other spiritual advisors except themselves to steer their kingdoms or empires.

Both the former leaders and the latter leaders we have mentioned above could easily contract a psychiatric condition/illness that we intend to describe here in this article, and they could direct or ascribe their evil doings to these powers thought to inhabit other planets and beyond. For while the leaderships depended on other sources still they had counselors who purported to be also fanatic concerning these mediums that showered numerous advice to the individual leaders. On many occasions, the advice came from their minds but still pretended it came from the supernatural beings [2]. But as for the leaders that acted as their [own] mouthpiece, they professed to be guided by some powers and, therefore, hardly considered human advice as anything but meaningless. Their powers and ideas seem to be authoritarian emanating from a single head.

The Aims of this Study
This study aims to unveil, describe, and analyze with the help of the psychoanalytic theory a psychiatric condition that is often seen with men and women who, instead of utilizing their brains, shun them and depend solely on “supernatural agents” to steer their leadership responsibilities. These precarious conditions make the professed leaders to be guided by some powers and, therefore, hardly considered human advice given to them as worthless. Their behaviors, demeanors, and ideas which are pathological seem to be authoritarian generating hysterical features which make them incredibly paranoid and, consequently, also make them agents of persecution.

Prediction and Statement of Argument
The premise of this study is that dictators’ lives consist of episodic occurrences that are protruding as controlling the steering of their responsibilities as leaders. These episodic conditions and circumstances could be analyzed and explained with the aid of psychoanalytic lenses to illuminate what dynamics forces drive them to possess these strange personality characteristics.

Theoretical Framework

Psychoanalytic Theory and Human Personality Development
One of the clinical methods for treating psychopathology is a psychoanalytic theory, which depicts a theory of personality formation and the dynamics of personality growth or its development [3]. It is the procedure that directs the psychoanalyst, that is, the one who practices, and is generally known as psychoanalysis. The first scholar who became a psychoanalyst is an Austrian neurologist, a Jewish by descent called Sigmund Freud, who commenced in the nineteenth century to propound this brilliant theory. Since its inception, psychoanalytic theory has endured many criticisms and, therefore, has led to refinements and reformulation of its basic tenets which are used in working. Even though Freud is not alive, the psychoanalytic theory is employed by some of his followers and modern-day theorists as workable psychological treatments gaining popularity in the 1960s and onwards [4]. Currently, the theory has ceased on the analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and has mainly shifted on the investigation of the human mind and other related psychological attributes making up the mind and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of transference [5]. Freud made it salient the unearthing and the recognition of childhood episodes that could influence the mental functioning of individual adults or grown-ups. Psychoanalytic theory is popular and known today for the study and examination of the genetic make-up of individual patients and all that contribute to their developmental aspects.

The theory of Sigmund Freud had important sway on many followers and adherents when his classic publication, The Interpretation of Dreams appeared [6]. This year was around 1899, and his theories began to gain prominence in the European continent that later spread to the United States of America and other parts of the globe. Freud’s theory on dreams permits individuals to express unconscious wishes they find deplorable in real life. The theory makes a distinction between what he called the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. The Manifest content is the scene of the dream. It tells the psychoanalyst who is in the dream, what happens and many other things. The Latent content, on the other hand, contains the hidden meaning of the dream. Freud informs us in his theory that the manifest content is a symbolic representation of the latent content. In other words, the plot acts as a disguise that masks the real meaning of the dream [7].

Sigmund Freud on the Personality Structure: Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud in his theory of personality contends that the personality of the individual consists of three different elements, the Id, the Ego, and the Superego [8]. The Id, Freud indicates, is the aspect of personality that is determined by inner and basic drives and needs. They are characteristically instinctual, such as thirst, hunger, and the drive for sex known as the libido. The unconscious is the id, and it originates from our instinctive capabilities. The Id further works as the pleasure principle, which denies itself pain but always looks for pleasure. Because of the instinctual nature of the Id, it is thoughtless and regularly uninformed of the consequences of its activities. According to Freud, the reality principle is the ego and it steers the ego as well. Here comes the meeting point of the ego, the superego, and the Id. The Ego, being the upper hand works to stabilize the Id and superego, by pushing to realize the Id’s drive in the most realistic manners. The Ego in short strives to justify the Id’s instinct and pacify the ambitions that help the person sooner or later. What it does is it works to differentiate what is tangible, and realistic of human drives as well as being realistic about the principles that the superego standardizes for the person. The Ego, furthermore, allows the individual to perceive himself. But here is the problem as being conscious as one is beautiful does not imply that that is the real case. This may just be an opinion that the person harbors and not everyone will concur with him on that belief. The morality principle vitalizes the superego. This functions in association with the morality of higher cognition and action. The Superego, unlike the Id, works to act in socially acceptable manners. It uses morality, mediating the human sense of right and wrong and utilizing guilt to direct socially acceptable behavior. Above all, the Superego originates from the individuals that are around us. These people influence what a person believes in and how he views things, so this can never be the same. It depends on how a person was brought up and the culture he came to meet. The Superego is also accountable for finding the cheerful standard between the Ego and Id. The Id can sometimes be extremely dominating when there are humanistic aspirations. The Ego can be very impractical in terms of how human beings perceive themselves.

The Theory of Unconscious and Dreams Interpretations
Freud commenced the theory of the human mind as possessing the conscious (awareness) and the unconscious (unaware) parts [6]. The human unconscious is the portion of the mind of which a person is not aware. Again, according to Freud, it is the unconscious that reveals the true feelings, emotions, and thoughts of the person. However, there are varieties of psychoanalytic approaches that can be utilized to deal with and comprehend the human unconscious. They may consist of methods such as hypnosis, free association, and dream analysis [9]. Dreams offer us the possibility to investigate the unconscious (i.e., unaware). As Freud said cogently dreams are the magnificent or noble pathway to the human unconscious. Dreams consist of latent and manifest content. The psychoanalyst can analyze latent content, which is the underlying meaning of a dream that may not be remembered when a person wakes up. He can also investigate manifest content, which are the contents of the dream that a person remembers upon waking up. It the exploration and understanding of the manifest content of dreams that can inform the individual of complexes or disorders that may be under the surface of their personality. Dreams most often can permit the human unconscious that is not easily reachable.

Freud also theorizes on the slips of tongues which are popularly known as Freudian slips or parapraxes [6]. This happens when the Superego and Ego do not function correctly, exposing the id and internal drives or wants. These are mistakes that expose the human unconscious. We can mention the calling of someone by the wrong name, misinterpreting a spoken or written word, or simply saying the wrong thing as numerous examples of Freudian parapraxes.

Defense Mechanism and its Different Forms
The Ego stabilizes the Id, Superego, and reality to hold a healthy condition of consciousness. Its action is to shield the individual human being from any stressors and anxiety by distorting reality. The ego thwarts frightening unconscious thoughts and factual material from entering the consciousness. There are diverse kinds of defense mechanisms which can be named repression, reaction formation, denial, projection, displacement, sublimation, regression, and rationalization [10].

Empirical Review of a Psychoanalytic Study: Erik Erikson “Young Man Luther”
One work that psychoanalytic theory was famously used to study an individual’s life was the psychologist Erik Erikson’s work name “Young Man Luther,” which was published in 1958 [11]. It was one of the major works where psychobiography or psychohistory was employed to delve into the life of a famous historical personality in the Western World. Erikson portrayed Martin Luther, a German Cleric to be a good representative or model of his discovery of “the identity crisis,” which most youth face in the life cycle. He believes he could explain Luther’s impulsive eruption, which occurred during his monastery life in Germany. According to Erikson, the young man Luther underwent and suffered through an environment that fomented crisis and succeeded in a healthy resolution, thereby becoming more fulfilled and strong than if the crisis had not been experienced at all. Luther, in the end, became obedient and followed a provincial leadership path his father had wished for him, rather than the national fame he could have easily pursued after his celebrity and wealth. It occurred after Luther had disobeyed and suffered turbulently many years in an identity crisis. According to Erikson, Martin Luther’s rebellion is most likely to manifest in the youth stage of a human being. He, therefore, intimated that before a rebellion can happen intensely, every young adult person must first have trusted in the thing they are rebelling against. Being thirty-four years old, Luther had believed greatly in the power and authority of the very organization he was campaigning against for failing to follow the word of God. He who was the most ardent vocal critic will have been the most loyal and committed fellow, [11] indicates Erikson.

Erikson’s psychoanalytic interpretation of young man Luther’s life is that great figures of the world stage usually spend years in a submissive condition. From an early age, they feel they will create a big name and make an impression on the world’s stage. Unknowingly, or unconsciously they delay for their particular “truth” to form itself in their immature minds, then suddenly they can make the most impact at the right period. Thus “Martin’s standing up to a Holy Roman Church can only be comprehended in the background of his initial disobedience to his biological father.” Erikson intimated that Luther was not rebellious or disobedient by nature, but having done it once, he was the reluctant professional who was not. Again he noted that although Martin Luther made a theological point, the church was not particularly out of line with the times of the moment but, it was simply Martin Luther’s own personal, internal issues with himself that manifested against the church and by projection, a crisis of identity [11].

Summary of Review
In this forgoing review, we discussed how clinical methods for treating psychopathology are in the terminologies of Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis. They furnish us with how the psychoanalytic theory works. The practice depicts how an individual’s personality comes about. Moreover, how the dynamics of personality growth or its development look. It is the process that directs the psychoanalyst, that is, the one who practices the techniques known as psychoanalysis. We now turn to the investigation of dictators to analyze the precarious conditions that make them profess to be guided by some external powers and, therefore, hardly considered human advice given to them as unimportant. Their behaviors, demeanors, and overall complex ideologies, which are pathological and authoritarian, generate hysterical features which could be studied using the lenses of the psychoanalyst. We will comprehend why they become incredibly paranoid and consequently make themselves agents of persecution.

Methodological Underpinnings
In this study, I am using the psychoanalytic clinical methods which are used for analyzing psychopathology to study dictators. In this sense, the psychoanalytic theory investigates the personality formation of dictators. Because I want to comprehend how the dictatorship personality is formed and how the dynamics of his personality growth or its development are influenced by what goes on in the unconscious. As Freud had said cogently, dreams are the “royal road” to the human unconscious. Moreover, dreams consist of latent and manifest content. The psychoanalyst path can help us investigate the latent content, which is the underlying meaning of a dream that may not be remembered when a person wakes up. It can aid us to delve into the manifest content that a person retains upon waking up. It is the exploration and understanding of the manifest content of dreams that can inform us about the dictator’s complexes or disorders that may be under the surface of their personalities. Recorded dreams of these men or women can give the human unconscious that is not easily reachable. It is the procedure that directs the psychoanalyst to know how a person acquires his disorder. The investigation will therefore employ psychobiography or psychohistory to accomplish its aims by unearthing the dictators [11,12].

Empirical Case Studies and Results

General Definition
I propose the Absolute Zenith Complex (AZC) disorder as a psychiatric condition that earthly leaders become obsessed with superiority or supernatural merge with some powers outside the human world. These persons/patients themselves purport to receive powers or some answers to messages from some supernatural powers direct. As a result, these patients usually shy away from any fruitful advice or counsel from human advisors unless they dream about a message that is coming to them. But these dreams originate from the human unconscious are nothing but their imaginations that lurks in the unconscious mind that can be very dangerous because dreams are usually the opposite things that occur during the waking states of man. Patients, therefore, like King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and some other Ancient Roman Emperors, saw themselves as gods who would take the dreams that occur to them as the most important and later wondered for their meanings. A patient with AZC disorder can also regard his mind as better than other minds that he would not depend on others but himself alone to perform his leadership responsibilities. He, therefore, uses his “wishes,” “inner troubles,” and “deep-seated fears” to demand answers from these imagined powers’ dreams they shower upon them and those that can offer them interpretations and meaning [13].

General Symptoms Leading to the Observed Conditions
These persons/patients usually obsess themselves with superiority. It is always the desire of any leader whether he is a king or a civilian leader. They become terrified when they have dream experiences which they could not comprehend. In their imagination and fantasies, they tend to lose contact with reality because of their dreamy states. As a result of their numerous wishes in real life, patients tend to be dreamers, and since they follow their dreams they often clash with their subjects or citizens concerning their wishes and theirs. The patient with AZC disorder usually finds it difficult to tolerate other’s ideas since he depends on the purported source of power to accomplish his task. The patient, therefore, uses war and other cruel manners to steer his administration. As a result, the patient is always troubled. He also tends to follow his dreams, which are full of imagination and human error. The major problem with such a patient is he hardly listens to advice. He will not agree by using peaceful means when there is a minor conflict. The patient suddenly becomes a tyrant that should be comparable to the modern dictators the world possesses. The patient originates problems to his inhabitants by brutalizing them and enforcing his wishes that he pretends to come from the outer figure in the space. As his subjects become tired of him, he usually turns (transfers) his eyes on other citizens who live outside his dominion. It is only to help replenish his lost popularity at home. War is a “holy war” or a legitimate thing, where he fulfills the wishes of his God or gods that are his sources of dreams and power. The patient’s zealous wish to follow the demands of his purported power source has been the results of the constant battles and wars that had occurred on the planet earth since time immemorial. Adherents of leaders that possess AZC disorder can also be infected by what I have called the “Norman Psychosis,” since the latter’s characteristic manner of acting like a tyrant amid profound assimilation of ideologies by his subjects and manipulation, make the adherents behave or carry out conspiracies orchestrated by him without engaging in adequate rationalization. The prophet Samuel, cutting into pieces King Agag, is one example of the madness of Norman Psychosis.

Case Studies of Well-known Dictators

Nebuchadnezzar
The Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar was one of the leaders that suffered the AZC disorder. The leader saw himself not only as a human being but also as a god. He built for himself a tall statue that he had seen in the dream to represent himself, where he invited all his subjects to bow and worship. He cast those that did not heed his advice into Lion’s den. His obsession with superiority made him depend on his troubled dreams that often he entreated philosophers and magicians to come and offer him interpretations and meaning. His psychiatric illness compelled him to live in the wilderness, where he fed himself with leaves, fruits, etc. His brutal manner of steering his people not meant that he punished his subjects severely and constantly, but also people that lived outside his dominion, including the Ancient Israelites, suffered under his rule. This brutal King took the Israelites into captivity and subjected them to hard labor.

Herr Adolf Hitler
The Leader of the Nazi Party in the nineteenth century also suffered from AZC disorder. Though he had advisors surrounding him, this leader was most of the time by himself and hardly considered other’s advice worth than his own. People around him were afraid of him and felt uncomfortable criticizing him. This is one of the reasons why men made several attempts to kill him. Especially those that were in opposition with him. He was in the obsession with superiority that not only he but also his people are the true kind of human beings on earth. He, therefore, initiated maltreatment of other races that he did not like personally. By depending on certain myths coined by his party and himself amid manipulation and propaganda, he succeeded in driving his numerous adherents to suffer the “Norman Psychosis,” which is an automatic response to commit crime and disturbance through manipulations orchestrated from a chosen leader. In a nation where both citizens and the leadership were obsessed with superiority (Filialdumm), political pursuits became irrational.

Far East Case Studies
A leader in the Far East that once had imprisoned the Noble Laureate was said to hear some voices from the outer planets. Some of them included the counsel concerning his building of another city elsewhere in his country. He was suffering from some illness because one could negotiate with this leader and, he refused to honor the pleadings of the most respected persons in the world. This behavior indicated that this figure was suffering from AZC disorders. He had little contact with reality, and so his people continued to suffer from his ruling that depended on human error and imaginations.

Alexander the Great & Roman Emperors
This Ancient Greek leader’s obsession with superiority was something that no one doubted. His mother had reinforced the dream that he had had earlier that he was a Grecian God reincarnated. He, therefore, set out to accomplish what this god had asked him to do. His obsession with superiority made him go on a rampage conquering nations. In the end, he did not know what to do with them. Though he died very young age of 31, he caused a lot of havoc in the world. The AZC disorder made him even fought against the non-warlike people of India and then went to Afghanistan to conquer other nearby nations.

Some well-known Roman Emperors suffered from AZC disorders and, as a result, brutalized their subjects and the Christians that lived in that kingdom. Some of these emperors saw themselves as gods that could decide the fate of all human beings in their dominion. The result was the devastation that swept through the kingdom about unnecessary entertainment, which subjects died through them.

Ancient Hebrew Kingdoms
It is also possible that many of these Ancients Kings that purported to be gods themselves or depend on powers from the outer world were suffering from the AZC disorders. Since we know that all these Jewish Kings had dreams given to them by their God. Dreams are nothing but the opposite happenings of the things that occur in waking states, Thomas Hobbes, the 15th Century scholar has informed us. According to him, those that depended on what he called “sleep imaginations” to rule their subjects only put them in deep trouble.

Discussion on the Psychoanalytic Assessments of a Dictator
The psychoanalytic theory theorizes on the notion of the unconscious mind that affects the individual in his personality formation and the dynamics of character development. The experiences in the unconscious mind of the brain have a bearing on the personality structure; they are the result of what goes on when the individual patient’s sleep and dreams. Freud says in his Interpretation of Dreams (1899) that the manifest dream and the latent dream each have a part to play in the waking state of man which includes the mind of the dictators. The psychoanalyst must investigate manifest content, which is the dream that a person remembers upon waking up. The assessment and comprehension of the manifest content of dreams can inform the individual of complexes or disorders that may be under the surface of their personality. Dreams most often can allow the human unconscious that is not easily accessible.

We observe the same trends in the life of King Nebuchadnezzar, Alexander the Great (the Emperor), Jewish Kings, and other leaders. All these men had strong beliefs in dreams and their influence on man’s destiny on earth. Their Superegos had endorsed the maxims from childhood. The Superego, unlike the Id, works to act in socially acceptable manners. It utilizes morality, mediating the human sense of right and wrong and utilizing guilt to direct socially acceptable behavior. The Superego originates from the individuals that are around us. Dreams were the controlling features in their reigns, public lives as well as private. The success in life depended on the brooding over of what the dreams could offer them; they could unveil their doom as well.

Since reality is twisted and perverted when it has to do with dreams, the lives of these men were unstable and shaky, so it compelled them to engage in atrocious activities such as wars and dangerous entertainment. In psychoanalysis, the Latent content contains the hidden meaning of the dream. Freud informs us also that the manifest content is a symbolic representation of the latent content. In other words, the plot acts as a disguise that masks the real meaning of the dream. Although they were concerned with the symbolic meaning, a great deal of weight was placed on the literal interpretations of what was required of them. Acts of domination were central to the leadership style in those days; therefore, it was not out of place that their copious wishes in real life were the contents of their latent dreams that strenuously controlled them. So it could be asserted that the latent dreams were filled with their “wishes” of greatness and domination through wars. But there were also their “fears,” which had to do largely with their possibility of being eliminated through a conspiracy by their next akin to the throne, the people that were fed up with their rules or enemies likely to sabotage them. The psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the point that the unconscious mind is complex and has to be interpreted with care using free association and transference. Transference is one of the defense mechanisms that are complex which can be experienced in different forms such as sexual transference, intimate transference, reverential or worship transference, and romantic and sensual transference. Interestingly, these dictators showed reverentially or worship transference that compelled them to be so disorderly devoted to these unseen agents who were their sources of power, protection, and war wagging. These might have compelled these leaders to sometimes experience the defense mechanism of “regression” thus leading to negative transference experiences.

All these machinations and maneuverings made dictators’ lives troubled and incredibly unstable in their behaviors. It constituted the source of indescribable paranoia, which altered their dealings to become overnight persecuting agents who could molest their people (the same folks that they profess to love) and those that inhabit external of their jurisdiction. Their characters could be described in modern psychology term by Melanie Klein to be paranoid-schizoid [14]. A schizoid personality disorder is a condition in which people avoid activities and interacting with others. It is generally recognized that these leaders despite their pomp and popularity lived in social isolation and sometimes demanded praises that they were not worthy or deserved by them. Some, on the other hand, detested praises or became indifferent to them. Some of these dictators showed a limited range of emotions and, that harmed their relationship with others especially, those who disagreed with them [15]. Some dictators may have developed complicated symptoms that could lie close to the schizophrenic patient as they might have been underlying symptoms that they could interpret reality abnormally. There could be a combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and behavior that impairs daily functioning and can be disabling to constructive activity.

The inner-troubled figures suffered another feature of defense mechanism. It is called denial. Denial or abnegation (German: Verneinung) is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person faces a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence. These usually occurred in wars when their Ego was unable to permit them to accept defeat in wars. Thus King Ahab was willing to die if Jezebel, his wife, would not murder Naboth and win him the vineyard of this faithful subject (1 Kings 21) [Naboth, the subject could plant a good enticing vineyard in contrast to the King’s failure to do so]. The Nazi leader would not accept the painful fact that the Russians had defeated them and, so he should not engage in denial to allow his people to perish. Instead of advising them to flee from the Capital city to escape the bombardment, he turned to propaganda to console himself with shame. Such dramatic experiences of denial could quickly lead to the colossal deaths or extermination of their principal advisors in the court.

No wonder one could describe the uniform character of dictators that they have enormous love for war and domination. Their “suffering personalities” are disorders or illness conditions stemming from the colossal yearning to be great achievers and accomplish much in the then unpredictable barbaric world of wars and plot of assassinations.

Concluding Remarks and Implication for Further Research
AZC condition points to individual leaders that orchestrate wars and acts of domination as not something that comes from these individuals but a form of the disorder. One sees an illness disorder that needs the therapist or a psychoanalyst to help them deal with it. The sad thing is that we continue to let these persons or impostors rule and cause havoc on earth. Their symptoms could be removed or treated as soon as we discover them having these complex conflicts which stem from unconscious conflicts. Eminent psychiatrists on British Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC) have mentioned the disorder as existing in the world. But they have not been interested in popularizing it because those patients that suffer from them are not many. But if we were to recognize it, we will investigate it, accept it and keep them enshrined in medical textbooks. The presence would warn us of the personality types we would choose to become leaders of nations. Women or men that are incredibly fanatic about experiences concerning some outer agents should not be allowed to lead countries.

Bibliography

1. Cf. Ancient civilizations such as Babylonia, Greece, Persia, and Roman Empires.
2. The Prophet Samuel in the Scriptures.
3. Brenner, C. (1973). An Elementary Textbook of Psychoanalysis - Revised edition. New York: International Universities Press.
4. Ellman, S. (2010). When Theories Touch: A Historical and Theoretical Integration of Psychoanalytic Thought. London: Karnac Books.
5. Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, J. B. (1974). The Language of Psycho-Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company.
6. Freud, Sigmund (1900). Interpretation of Dreams. Standard Edition.
7. Grünbaum Adolf (1986). Precis of Foundations of Psycho-Analysis: A Philosophical Critique. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9(2), 217-284.
8. Sprenger Scott (2002). Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory. The Literary Encyclopedia.
9. Gill, M. (1984). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: A revision. International Review of Psycho-Analysis, 11(2), 161-179.
10. Schwartz, W. (2013). Essentials of Psychoanalytic Theory and Practice.
11. Erikson Erik (1962). Young Man Luther. W. W. Norton & Company.
12. Erikson Erik (1975). Life History and the Historical Movement. Diverse Presentations. W. W. Norton & Co.
13. Brenner, C. (1992). The mind as conflict and compromise formation. Journal of Clinical Psychoanalysis, 3, 473-563.
14. Klein Melanie (1932). The Psychoanalysis of Children. In The Writings of Melanie Klein Volume 2. London: Hogarth Press. The term 'paranoid-schizoid position' refers to a constellation of anxieties, defenses, and internal and external object relations that Klein considers to be characteristic of the earliest months of an infant's life and to continue to a greater or lesser extent into childhood and adulthood.
15. Klein Melanie (1935). A contribution to the psychogenesis of manic-depressive states. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 16, 145-174.